PRIMARY SOURCES
Harper, Lawrence V. “Epigenetic inheritance and the intergenerational transfer of experience.” Psychological Bulletin 131, no. 3 (2005): 340–60.
Jablonka, Eva, and Marion J. Lamb. Evolution in Four Dimensions. MIT Press, 2005.
Morgan, Hugh D., Heidi G. E. Sutherland, David I. K. Martin, and Emma Whitelaw. “Epigenetic inheritance at the agouti locus in the mouse.” Nature Genetics 23 (1999): 314–18.
Watters, Ethan. “DNA Is Not Destiny.” Published on the Discover Web site, November 22, 2006. (A superb piece, without which I would have been unable to write this chapter.)
CHAPTER NOTES
In textbooks and elsewhere, Lamarckism has been defined (and mocked) as a crude, pre-Darwinian conception of evolution, tainted by the flimsy idea that biological heredity can somehow be altered through personal experience.
An important corrective of the Lamarck legacy, from Eva Jablonka and Marion Lamb:
This often repeated version of the history of evolutionary ideas is wrong in many respects: it is wrong in making Lamarck’s ideas seem so simplistic, wrong in implying that Lamarck invented the idea that acquired characteristics are inherited, wrong in not recognizing that use and disuse had a place in Darwin’s thinking too, and wrong to suggest that the theory of natural selection displaced the inheritance of acquired characters from the mainstream of evolutionary thought. The truth is that Lamarck’s theory was quite sophisticated, encompassing much more than the inheritance of acquired characters. Moreover, Lamarck did not invent the idea that acquired characters can be inherited—almost all biologists believed this at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and many still believed it at its end. (Jablonka and Lamb, Evolution in Four Dimensions, p. 13; see also Ghiselin, “The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus ‘History’ in Schoolbooks.”)
Lamarck called it “the inheritance of acquired characteristics”—the notion that an individual’s actions can alter the biological inheritance passed on to his or her children.
Lamarck wrote:
All the acquisitions or losses wrought by nature on individuals, through the influence of the environment in which their race has long been placed, and hence through the influence of the predominant use or permanent disuse of any organ; all these are preserved by reproduction to the new individuals which arise, provided that the acquired modifications are common to both sexes, or at least to the individuals which produce the young. (Lamarck, Zoological Philosophy, p. 113.)
For example, giraffes, according to Lamarck’s theory, had developed longer and longer necks over the generations because of the giraffe’s practice of reaching higher and higher for food.
Lamarck wrote:
It is interesting to observe the result of habit in the peculiar shape and size of the giraffe: this animal, the tallest of the mammals, is known to live in the interior of Africa in places where the soil is nearly always arid and barren, so that it is obliged to browse on the leaves of trees and to make constant efforts to reach them. From this habit long maintained in all its race, it has resulted that the animal’s forelegs have become longer than its hind-legs, and that its neck is lengthened to such a degree that the giraffe, without standing up on its hind-legs, attains a height of six meters. (Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique, as quoted in Gould, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, p. 188.)
Drawing of Giraffe in a “classic” feeding position, extending its neck, head, and tongue to reach the leaves of an Acacia tree. Tsavo National Park, Kenya: Drawing by C. Holdrege. (Holdrege, In Context #10, pp. 14–19)
After Darwin’s Origin of Species and the subsequent discovery of genes, a very different notion—the theory of natural selection—became scientific and popular consensus.
Actually, what the general public still refers to as our “Darwinian” understanding of evolution is more properly called the “modern evolutionary synthesis,” a melding of Darwin’s ideas with later genetics discoveries.
Here is a nice synopsis of the modern evolutionary synthesis, from Douglas J. Futuyma:
The major tenets of the evolutionary synthesis, then, were that populations contain genetic variation that arises by random (i.e. not adaptively directed) mutation and recombination; that populations evolve by changes in gene frequency brought about by random genetic drift, gene flow, and especially natural selection; that most adaptive genetic variants have individually slight phenotypic effects so that phenotypic changes are gradual (although some alleles with discrete effects may be advantageous, as in certain color polymorphisms); that diversification comes about by speciation, which normally entails the gradual evolution of reproductive isolation among populations; and that these processes, continued for sufficiently long, give rise to changes of such great magnitude as to warrant the designation of higher taxonomic levels (genera, families, and so forth). (Futuyma, Evolutionary Biology, p. 12.)
Pictures of Toadflax flowers: Emil Nilsson. Used by permission.
There was a difference between the two flowers on their respective epigenomes: Jablonka and Lamb, Evolution in Four Dimensions, p. 42.
DNA is famously wound together in a double-helix strand.
Diameter of DNA is about 20 angstroms (1 angstrom = 1 × 10–10 meters).
These histones protect the DNA and keep it compact. They also serve as a mediator for gene expression, telling genes when to turn on and off. It’s been known for many years that this epigenome (“epi-” is a Latin prefix for “above” or “outside”) can be altered by the environment and is therefore an important mechanism for gene-environment interaction.
“In 2005, Madrid biologist Manel Esteller and colleagues reported finding significant epigenetic differences in a whopping thirty-five percent of identical twin sets. ‘These findings help show how environmental factors can change one’s gene expression and susceptibility to disease,’ said Esteller.” (Choi, “How Epigenetics Affects Twins”; see also Pray, “Epigenetics,” pp. 1, 4.)
They observed that their batch of genetically identical mice were turning up with a range of different fur colors: Morgan, Sutherland, Martin, and Whitelaw, “Epigenetic inheritance at the agouti locus in the mouse,” pp. 314–18.
A pregnant yellow mouse eating a diet rich in folic acid or soy milk would be prone to experience an epigenetic mutation producing brown-fur offspring, and even with the pups returning to a normal diet, that brown fur would be passed to future generations.
Morgan and Whitelaw write:
Changes to the dam’s diet during pregnancy can alter the proportion of yellow mice within a litter. For example, when the dam’s diet is supplemented with methyl donors, including betaine, methionine, and folic acid, there is a shift in the colour of their offspring away from yellow and towards agouti. Similar effects have been observed following the feeding of the dams with genistein, which is found in soy milk. (Morgan and Whitelaw, “The case for transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in humans,” pp. 394–95.)
exposure to a pesticide in one generation of rats spurred an epigenetic change: Watters, “DNA Is Not Destiny.”
age-related epigenetic changes in human males: Malaspina et al., “Paternal age and intelligence,” pp. 117–25.
nutritional deficiencies and cigarette smoking in one generation of humans had effects across several generations: Watters, “DNA Is Not Destiny.”
link between inherited epigenetic changes and human colon cancer: Hitchins et al., “Inheritance of a cancer-associated MLH1 germ-line epimutation,” pp. 697–705.
“Epigenetics is proving we have some responsibility for the integrity of our genome,” says the Director of Epigenetics and Imprinting at Duke University, Randy Jirtle: Watters, “DNA Is Not Destiny.”
“Information is transferred from one generation to the next by many interacting inheritance systems”: Jablonka and Lamb, Evolution in Four Dimensions, p. 319.
New animal research in the February 4 [2009] issue of The Journal of Neuroscience shows that a stimulating environment improved the memory of young mice with a memory-impairing genetic defect and also improved the memory of their eventual offspring: Society for Neuroscience, “Mother’s Experience Impacts Offspring’s Memory”; the original article cited is Arai, Li, Hartley, and Feig, “Transgenerational rescue of a genetic defect in long-term potentiation and memory formation by juvenile enrichment,” pp. 1496–1502.
“People used to think that once your epigenetic code was laid down in early development, that was it for life,” says McGill University epigenetics pioneer Moshe Szyf: Watters, “DNA Is Not Destiny.”
EPILOGUE: TED WILLIAMS FIELD
His tiny boyhood home at 4121 Utah Street still stands.
http://bit.ly/9Bmml.
Two short blocks away, his old practice baseball field is still there too.
http://bit.ly/yUGZs.
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