Chapter 1
1 Solution B, negative; or Solution A, positive
2 150 mmol/L urea
3 Increases
4 Upstroke of the action potential
5 25 quanta
6 Botulinus toxin
7 Action potential in nerve fiber; opening Ca2+ channels in presynaptic terminal; ACh release from presynaptic terminal; binding of ACh to nicotinic receptors; opening ligand-gated ion channels; MEPP; EPP; action potential in muscle fiber
8 Approximately equal to (Hint: Passive tension is negligible in this range.)
9 Substance P, vasopressin
10 Double (Hint: ΔC = 10 − 1 = 9. If both sides doubled, ΔC = 20 − 2 = 18.)
11 L-Dopa, dopamine, norepinephrine
12 Increasing nerve diameter: increases; increasing internal resistance (Ri): decreases; increasing membrane resistance (Rm): increases; decreasing membrane capacitance (Cm): increases; increasing length constant: increases; increasing time constant: decreases.
13 Depolarizes; causes muscle weakness by closing inactivation gates on Na+ channels so that they are unavailable to carry Na+ current for upstroke of muscle action potential
14 Conformational change in myosin that reduces its affinity for actin
15 Nicotinic receptor antagonist; inhibitor of choline reuptake; inhibitor of ACh release
16 Water flows from A to B. (Hint: Calculated πeff of Solution B is higher than that of Solution A, and water flows from low to high πeff.)
Chapter 2
1 Dilation of airways; relaxation of bladder wall
2 Muscarinic; sphincter
3 Ganglia in or near target tissues (Hints: All postganglionic neurons have nicotinic receptors; sweat glands have sympathetic cholinergic innervation; all preganglionic neurons are cholinergic.)
4 Inhibits (or blocks); β1 receptors
5 Effect of epinephrine to increase cardiac contractility; effect of epinephrine to increase heart rate
6 Phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase
7 α1-adrenergic agonist (would constrict vascular smooth muscle, further elevating blood pressure); β1-adrenergic agonist (would increase heart rate and contractility, further elevating blood pressure)
8 Muscarinic, contraction, muscarinic, relaxation
9 αq binds to GDP, αq binds to GTP, activation of phospholipase C, generation of IP3, release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, activation of protein kinase
10 Slowing of conduction velocity in AV node; gastric acid secretion; erection; sweating on a hot day
Chapter 3
1 Right optic nerve
2 To the left (Hint: Postrotatory nystagmus is in the opposite direction of the original rotation.)
3 One
4 Knee-jerk reflex; stretch reflex (Hint: Knee-jerk is an example of stretch reflex.)
5 Phasic
6 Light; conversion of 11-cis rhodopsin to all-trans rhodopsin; transducin; decreased cyclic GMP; closure of Na+ channels; hyperpolarization; release of neurotransmitter
7 More negative; decreases likelihood of action potentials
8 Golgi tendon organs: activated
Ia afferent fibers: unchanged (Hint: Ia afferents are involved in the stretch reflex.)
Ib afferent fibers: activated
Inhibitory interneurons: activated
α motoneurons: inhibited
9 Protein; glucose; K+
10 Initial rotation to the right—right canal is activated; head stops rotating—left canal is activated.
11 Wider; more compliant; lower
Chapter 4
1 mm Hg/mL/min or mm Hg/L/min
2 800 milliseconds (Hint: 60 seconds in a minute)
3 Ventricular action potential; Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum; Ca2+ binding to troponin C; tension; Ca2+ accumulation by sarcoplasmic reticulum
4 0.50 (Hint: Heart rate is not needed for the calculation.)
5 Isovolumetric relaxation (Hint: Ventricle is filling during atrial systole.)
6 Increased; increased
7 77 mL (Hint: First, calculate stroke volume from cardiac output and heart rate; then use calculated stroke volume and stated end-diastolic volume to calculate end-systolic volume.)
8 Net filtration; driving force is 9 mm Hg
9 All will decrease.
10 End-diastolic volume (or preload)
11 Increased phosphorylation of phospholamban; increased action potential duration
12 Phase 0
13 Excitability
14 Increased heart rate (Hint: Each change, by itself, leads to increased heart rate.)
15 Heart rate; resistance of cutaneous vascular beds; angiotensin II levels (Hint: Unstressed volume decreases due to venoconstriction.)
16 Decreased radius (Hint: T = P × r. Thus, if P increases, r must decrease to maintain a constant wall tension.)
17 Pulmonary (Hint: Pulmonary blood flow is 100% of cardiac output.)
18 Increased contractility (Hints: End-diastolic volume is preload, and aortic pressure is afterload.)
19 Rapid ventricular ejection
20 Decreased; decreased
21 Decreased cardiac output caused by increased aortic pressure (Hint: Pressure work is more costly than volume work.)
22 Total resistance decreases from 3.33 to 2.5.
23 Blood vessel A (Hint: Velocity = flow/area.)
24 Dicrotic notch: arterial pressure trace
β1 receptors: sinoatrial node and ventricular muscle
Lmax: Length-tension curve
Radius to the fourth power: resistance of blood vessels or resistance equation
Phospholamban: sarcoplasmic reticulum
Negative dromotropic effect: AV node
Pulse pressure: arteries or arterial pressure
Normal automaticity: SA node
Ejection fraction: ventricle
25 Rapid ventricular ejection, isovolumetric ventricular relaxation
26 Diameter of splanchnic arterioles, TPR
27 End-systolic volume
28 Sympathetic effect to increase contractility
Chapter 5
1 1500 mL
2 Milliliters or liters (Hint: FEV1 is the volume expired in the first second of forced expiration, not a fractional volume.)
3 547.5 mm Hg (Hint: [740 − 47] × 0.79.)
4 39.3 mL/min/mm Hg (Hint 1: VCO = DL × ΔP. Hint 2: PCO in room air = [PB − 47 mm Hg] × 0.001, and PCO in blood is initially zero.)
5 Increased H+ concentration, increased PCO2, increased 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG) concentration (Hint: Increased P50 = right shift.)
6 None of changes listed causes a change in O2-binding capacity of hemoglobin. (Hint: O2-binding capacity is the milliliter of O2 bound to 1 g of hemoglobin at 100% saturation. Right- and left-shifts change the percent saturation but do not alter the amount of O2 that can be bound at 100% saturation.)
7 PO2 is decreased and PCO2 is increased.
8 PAo2
9 Blood flow, ventilation, PCO2
10 
defects, fibrosis, right-to-left shunt
11 Inspiratory capacity
12 Vital capacity, FEV1 (Hint: FEV1/FVC is decreased in obstructive but increased in restrictive.)
13 3.5 L/minute (Hints: Calculate VD first as 200 mL. Several of the given values are not needed for the calculation.)
14 FRC increases.
15 Airway pressure = +15 cm H2O and intrapleural pressure = +20 cm H2O.
16 High altitude
17 Decreased PIO2, decreased PAO2, decreased PaO2, hyperventilation, decreased PaCO2, increased pH
18 FEV1: forced vital capacity curve or measurement
= 0: lung region where there is airway obstruction, or shunt
PA > Pa: apex of lung
Afterload of right ventricle: pulmonary artery or pulmonary arterial pressure
γ chains: fetal hemoglobin
P50: O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve
Slope of pressure-volume curve: compliance
Normal pressure lower than PB: intrapleural space
DL: alveolar/pulmonary capillary barrier
PO2 < 60 mm Hg stimulates breathing: peripheral chemoreceptors, or carotid bodies
19 Equal to systemic arterial PO2
20 Decrease
Chapter 6
1 Efferent arteriole
2 At all plasma glucose concentrations below threshold
3 Oncotic pressure is increased. (Hint: More fluid filtered out of glomerular capillaries leads to increased plasma protein concentration.)
4 Below Tm (Hint: Below Tm, the assumption that renal vein PAH ≈ 0 is correct.)
5 306.7 mOsm/L (Hints: New total body water = 45 L; NaCl dissociates into two particles; new total body osmoles = 13,800 mOsm.)
6 Unchanged (Hint: If GFR is constant and urine flow rate increases, urine inulin concentration decreases.)
7 Increased
8 Bowman’s space or early proximal convoluted tubule (Hint: [TF/P]inulin is lowest before any water reabsorption has occurred.)
9 Bowman’s space or early proximal convoluted tubule
10 Decreased (Hint: Na+-K+-2Cl− cotransporter is required for countercurrent multiplication, which establishes corticopapillary gradient.)
11 Central diabetes insipidus
12 Decreased
13 mg/min (or amount/time)
14 Decreased
15 Lack of insulin, spironolactone, hyperosmolarity
16 Inhibition of Na+-phosphate cotransport, decreased urinary Ca2+ excretion
17 Net reabsorption, 1100 mg/min
18 Midpoint of distal convoluted tubule or early distal tubule
19 Clearance of PAH below Tm (Hints: Clearance of glucose below threshold is zero; clearance of inulin is GFR; clearance of PAH below Tm is RPF.)
20 K+ on a very high-potassium diet, inulin, Na+, HCO3−, glucose (below threshold)
Chapter 7
1 Weak acid “A”
2 7.9 mEq/L
3 Increased (Hint: compensatory hyperventilation for metabolic acidosis.)
4 Diarrhea, salicylate overdose, chronic renal failure
5 Loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics (Hint: Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and K+-sparing diuretics produce metabolic acidosis.)
6 Metabolic acidosis; anion gap is 29 mEq/L.
7 mOsm/L
8 Vomiting, morphine overdose, obstructive lung disease, hyperaldosteronism
9 Filtration of HCO3− across glomerular capillaries; Na+-H+ exchange; conversion of HCO3− to H2CO3; conversion of H2CO3 to CO2 and H2O; conversion of H2CO3 to H+ and HCO3−; facilitated diffusion of HCO3−
10 70 mEq/day
11 The patient with chronic respiratory acidosis will have the higher HCO3− and the higher pH (closer to normal).
12 No; metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
13 Decreases (toward normal)
14 Filtered load of HPO4−2 (Hints: Amount of H+ in the urine is determined by urinary buffers; urine pH is free H+ concentration, not amount of H+. Most NH3 in urine is synthesized in proximal tubule cells, not filtered.)
15 Diabetic ketoacidosis
Chapter 8
1 Contraction of the gallbladder, stimulation of HCO3− secretion, stimulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion
2 Decreased intracellular cyclic AMP levels
3 Less negative (Hint: Membrane potentials are expressed as intracellular potential with respect to extracellular potential.)
4 Absorption of more solute than water
5 Increases cyclic AMP levels, activates αs subunit of GTP-binding protein
6 Sucrose
7 Emulsification of lipids in the intestinal lumen, action of pancreatic lipase, micelles, formation of cholesterol ester, chylomicrons
8 HCO3−
9 Trypsinogen to trypsin, procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase
10 Duodenum
11 Gastrin secretion: G cells or gastric antrum
Na+–bile salt cotransport: ileum
H+-K+ ATPase: gastric parietal cells
Intrinsic factor secretion: gastric parietal cells
Omeprazole action: H+-K+ ATPase in gastric parietal cells
Na+-glucose cotransporter: apical (luminal) membrane of intestinal epithelial cells
Secondary bile acids (or bile salts): intestinal lumen
12 Inhibition of H+-K+ ATPase
13 Increased body fat, increased insulin levels
14 Contraction of circular muscle, action of acetylcholine on circular muscle
Chapter 9
1 Cortisol: Decreased
ACTH: Increased
Blood glucose: Decreased
2 ADH: Increased
Urine osmolarity: Decreased, or dilute or hyposmotic
3 Serum K+: Decreased
Blood pressure: Increased
Renin: Decreased (Hint: Increased blood pressure inhibits renin secretion.)
4 ACTH: Increased
Cortisol: Increased
Blood glucose: Increased
5 Serum Ca2+: Decreased
Serum phosphate: Increased
Urinary cyclic AMP: Decreased
6 Prolactin: Increased
ADH: Decreased
Serum osmolarity: Increased (Hint: due to decreased ADH)
PTH: No change
7 T4: Decreased
TSH: Increased
Basal metabolic rate: Decreased
T3 resin uptake: Decreased (Hint: due to decreased T3 levels)
8 ACTH: Increased
Cortisol: Decreased
Deoxycorticosterone (DOC): Decreased
Aldosterone: Decreased
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): Increased (Hint: shunting of intermediates toward adrenal androgens)
Urinary 17-ketosteroids: Increased
9 ACTH: Decreased
Cortisol: Decreased (Hint: decreased secretion of endogenous cortisol)
10 Serum Ca2+: Increased
PTH: Decreased (Hint: Increased serum Ca2+ inhibits endogenous PTH secretion.)
11 Blood pressure: Increased (Hint: Mineralocorticoids accumulate to left of block.)
Blood glucose: Decreased
DHEA: Decreased
Aldosterone: Decreased (Hint: Excess deoxycorticosterone and corticosterone cause increased blood pressure, which inhibits renin secretion.)
Chapter 10
1 Hypothalamic dysfunction
2 Cholesterol to pregnenolone
3 21β-hydroxylase
4 HCG
5 Placenta; fetal liver; fetal adrenal cortex
6 Days 5–14
7 Days 26–28
8 Testes; muscle mass; epididymis; deepening of the voice
9 Male phenotype, testes, vagina
10 Testosterone → 17β-estradiol