Exstrophy-Epispadias Complex - Campbell-Walsh Urology, 11th Edition

Campbell-Walsh Urology, 11th Edition

PART XV

Pediatric Urology

SECTION D

Lower Urinary Tract Conditions

139 Exstrophy-Epispadias Complex

John P. Gearhart; Ranjiv Mathews

Questions

What is the live birth incidence of classic bladder exstrophy?
1 in 100,000
1 in 60,000
1 in 50,000
1 in 70,000
1 in 90,000
What is the live birth risk of bladder exstrophy in the offspring of individuals with bladder exstrophy and epispadias?
1 in 70
1 in 300
1 in 500
1 in 700
1 in 450
The main theory of embryologic maldevelopment in exstrophy is that of abnormal:
underdevelopment of the cloacal membrane, preventing medial migration of the mesoderm tissue and proper lower abdominal wall development.
overdevelopment of the cloacal membrane, preventing medial migration of the mesodermal tissue and proper lower abdominal wall development.
infiltration of ectoderm into the cloacal membrane.
infiltration of mesoderm into the cloacal membrane.
invasion of endoderm into the cloacal membrane.
In evaluation of the skeletal defects of bladder exstrophy, Sponseller and colleagues (1995)*found that with classic bladder exstrophy, there are changes in the orientation of the pelvic bones. These include:
external rotation of the posterior aspect of the pelvis of 12 degrees on each side.
retroversion of the acetabulum.
an 18-degree rotation of the anterior pelvis.
a 30% shortening of the pubic rami in addition to a significant pubic symphyseal diastasis.
All of the above.
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding hernias in children with exstrophy?
Identification at the time of initial closure is not possible.
They are usually unilateral.
They are noted in 80% of boys and 10% of girls.
The orientation of the pelvic bones makes them infrequent.
A patent processus vaginalis is rarely noted.
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the male genital defect in exstrophy?
The posterior length of the corporeal bodies was 30% shorter than in healthy controls.
The diameter of the posterior corporeal segments was less than in healthy controls.
The shortening of the penis was due entirely to the pubic diastasis.
The anterior corporeal segments are 50% shorter than those of healthy control participants.
The angle between the corpora cavernosa is markedly reduced in boys with exstrophy.
Which of the following statements best describes findings regarding the prostate in exstrophy?
Volume weight and the cross-sectional area appeared healthy compared with published results from control subjects.
The prostate extended circumferentially around the urethra in all patients with exstrophy.
Free prostate-specific antigen (PSA) values were greater than in healthy controls, indicating recurrent injury from infection.
The vas deferens and seminal vesicles were abnormal due to the effect of the exstrophic bladder.
Total PSA values were not measurable in men with exstrophy.
Which of the following accurately describes the vagina in the female patient with bladder exstrophy?
Shorter than normal and of smaller caliber
Vaginal orifice displaced posteriorly because of the anterior exstrophic bladder
Shorter than normal but of normal caliber
Longer than normal and of wider caliber
Cervix enters the posterior vaginal wall
Findings regarding the structure and innervation of the exstrophic bladder include:
density and binding affinity of the muscarinic receptors that were similar to norms.
a decreased ratio of collagen to muscle in the exstrophic bladder.
increased myelinated nerve profiles, indicating a later developmental stage.
a threefold increase in the amount of type I collagen.
study of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, protein gene product 9.5, and calcitonin gene–related peptide that indicated the presence of dysinnervation.
Which of the following statements best describes bladder function in patients with bladder exstrophy?
In patients who are continent after reconstruction, normal cystometrograms are noted in 10% to 25%.
Eighty percent of patients had compliant and stable bladders before bladder neck reconstruction.
Involuntary contractions were noted infrequently after bladder neck reconstruction.
After bladder neck reconstruction, 90% maintained normal bladder compliance.
After successful closure, ultrastructure remains abnormal in the majority.
The characteristic prenatal appearance of bladder exstrophy includes which of the following?
Absence of bladder filling
Low-set umbilicus
Widening of the pubic ramus
Diminutive genitalia
All of the above
Newborn patient selection for immediate reconstruction is based on:
examination of the bladder in the nursery without anesthesia.
complete lack of any surface defects on examination.
indentation of the bladder under anesthesia or outward bulging when the child cries.
size of the phallus at birth.
extent of the pubic diastasis.
Fundamental steps in the modern staged reconstruction of bladder exstrophy include all of the following EXCEPT:
early bladder, posterior urethral, and abdominal wall closure.
early epispadias repair around age 1 year.
conversion of the bladder exstrophy to complete epispadias.
bladder neck reconstruction before the epispadias repair to provide early continence.
ureteral reimplantation at the time of bladder neck reconstruction.
What is the best treatment option at the time of birth in a child whose bladder template is judged to be too small to undergo closure?
Excision of the bladder with a nonrefluxing colon conduit
Immediate closure with epispadias repair to provide resistance and allow the bladder to grow
Delaying closure by 4 to 6 months with reassessment to see if the bladder will grow
Bladder closure, augmentation, ureteral reimplantation, and a continence procedure
Improve the potential for successful closure with an osteotomy
Combined osteotomy was developed for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
the approach allows placement of an external fixator device.
superior cosmesis provided by this approach.
the need to turn a patient to perform an osteotomy.
better ease of pubic approximation.
reduced risk of malunion of the iliac wing and reduction of blood loss.
Complications that are associated with osteotomy and immobilization techniques include all of the following EXCEPT:
skin ulceration associated with use of mummy wrapping.
failure of the bladder and abdominal wall closure associated with the use of spica casting.
high rates of failure of reconstruction associated with the use of osteotomy and external fixation.
transient femoral nerve palsy with the use of osteotomy.
delayed union of the iliac wings after use of posterior osteotomy.
Other options have been described for reconstruction in bladder exstrophy. Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the other described approaches?
The Warsaw approach includes bladder neck reconstruction at the time of initial bladder closure.
The Erlangen approach includes all of the features of reconstruction of the exstrophy in a single procedure.
The Seattle approach (CPRE) includes bladder neck reconstruction as part of the complete reconstruction of exstrophy.
Combined bladder closure and epispadias repair are performed in cases of primary exstrophy repair at birth.
The Warsaw approach uses the Young repair as the preferred method for epispadias reconstruction.
After initial primary bladder closure in the newborn, what should be done if recurrent urinary tract infections occur?
Voiding cystourethrogram
Bladder computed tomography (CT)
Ureteral reimplantation
Prophylaxis modified
Cystoscopy
After successful bladder closure, management should include all the following EXCEPT:
calibration of the urethral outlet 4 weeks after closure to ensure free drainage.
ultrasound evaluation of the kidneys and bladder.
intermittent antibiotics for urinary tract infections.
complete bladder drainage by suprapubic tube clamping.
yearly cystoscopic evaluation.
In a patient with bladder exstrophy who undergoes more than one closure of the bladder and urethral defect, what is the chance of having adequate bladder capacity for later bladder neck reconstruction?
60%
70%
20%
30%
10%
The key concepts in the reconstruction of epispadias include all of the following EXCEPT:
correction of ventral chordee.
urethral reconstruction.
glans reconstruction.
penile skin coverage.
penile lengthening.
Information gleaned from most major series of bladder neck reconstruction indicates that the most important factor to predict success and eventual continence after bladder neck reconstruction is:
age of the child.
number of prior bladder infections.
number of attempts at bladder closure.
bladder capacity.
vesicoureteral reflux.
After bladder neck reconstruction, within what time period do the majority of patients achieve daytime continence?
2 years
1 year
2 months
6 months
4 years
After a failed bladder closure in the newborn period, an appropriate time period should elapse before attempting a secondary repair. What should this time period be?
2 months
18 months
2 years
6 months
15 months
All of the following statements are TRUE regarding the results of modern staged reconstruction of exstrophy EXCEPT:
The onset of eventual continence and continence rates were unchanged in those who had initial successful closure.
The modified Cantwell-Ransley repair has replaced the Young technique because there is less urethral tortuosity and lower fistula rates.
Incidence of fistula formation was 12% at 3 months after epispadias repair.
Continence is more likely in those patients undergoing initial closure before 72 hours of age or those who have closure after 72 hours of age with osteotomy.
Continence rates are higher in those who have capacities of 85 mL or more at the time of bladder neck reconstruction.
Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding exstrophy failures?
After successful secondary closure, 90% of patients develop dryness and voided continence.
Dehiscence after complete primary repair may be associated with corporeal, urethral, and other major soft tissue loss.
Bladder prolapse can be managed with minimal outlet procedures because this is considered a mild failure.
Because the results of reclosure are poor, immediate resection of the bladder plate followed by neobladder construction is the preferred management.
Posterior urethral stricture is usually a late complication occurring 4 to 6 years after initial closure.
Bladder neck reconstruction is designated as a failure if a 3-hour dry interval is not achieved within 2 years after surgery. Management of such failure is with the use of:
collagen, which can lead to dryness.
artificial urinary sphincter small bladder capacities.
bladder neck transection, augmentation cystoplasty, and continent diversion.
repeat bladder neck reconstruction in relatively tight bladder necks.
repeat bladder neck reconstruction in bladder instability.
The risks of ureterosigmoidostomy in the exstrophy population include:
pyelonephritis and hyperchloremic acidosis.
pyelonephritis, hyponatremia, and rectal incontinence.
low incidence for eventual development of cancer.
poor outcomes with upper tract deterioration.
prolapse of the abdominal stoma.
What is the live birth incidence of cloacal exstrophy?
1 in 400,000
1 in 20,000
1 in 750,000
1 in 1,000,000
1 in 500,000
Neurospinal abnormalities are noted in the majority of patients with cloacal exstrophy. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT:
Thoracic defects may be noted in 10% of patients.
The embryologic basis for the neurospinal defect has been identified as failure of neural tube closure.
Autonomic bladder innervation is derived from a more medial location.
Innervation of the duplicated corporeal bodies arises from the sacral plexus and courses medial to the hemibladders.
Functional defects can include minimal lower extremity function.
Cloacal exstrophy is a multisystem abnormality. Which of the following is TRUE regarding cloacal exstrophy?
The bones in a child with cloacal exstrophy were microscopically, markedly different from healthy controls.
In the presence of a normal bowel length, there is low probability for the development of short-gut syndrome.
The most common müllerian anomaly noted was partial uterine duplication.
Cardiovascular and pulmonary anomalies are frequently noted.
The most common upper urinary tract anomaly noted was multicystic dysplastic kidney.
What is the incidence of omphalocele associated with cloacal exstrophy?
40%
70%
95%
20%
60%
In the patient with cloacal exstrophy, hindgut remnants should be preserved to:
enlarge the bladder.
permit vaginal reconstruction.
allow either bladder augmentation or vaginal reconstruction.
provide additional length of bowel for fluid absorption.
allow later anal pull-through surgery.
Gender assignment continues to remain a controversial aspect of cloacal exstrophy management. Current research indicates that:
Psychosexual evaluation indicates that patients have marked female shift in development.
Patients have feminine childhood behavior but developed masculine gender identity.
Histology of the testis at birth is abnormal, and therefore removal has been recommended.
Most recommend that gender be assigned on the basis of the ability for functional reconstruction rather than on karyotype.
A functional and cosmetically acceptable phallus can now be constructed.
What is the live birth incidence of male epispadias?
1 in 150,000
1 in 200,000
1 in 400,000
1 in 117,000
1 in 250,000
What is the incidence of reflux in patients with complete epispadias?
10% to 20%
90%
70%
50%
30% to 40%
In the complete epispadias group, what is the predominant indicator of eventual continence?
Length of the urethral groove
Lack of spinal abnormalities
Bladder capacity at the time of bladder neck reconstruction
Age at bladder neck reconstruction
Age at epispadias repair and degree of resistance provided
Many variations in anatomy have been reported in the exstrophy-epispadias complex. All of the following are true regarding exstrophy variants EXCEPT:
The presence of musculoskeletal defects characteristic of the complex, with a normal urinary tract, is termed pseudoexstrophy.
The bladder is completely exstrophied in the superior vesical fissure variant.
With "covered" exstrophy, an isolated ectopic bowel segment has been frequently noted.
An isolated segment of bladder is left on the abdominal wall, with a complete urinary tract within the bladder in duplicate exstrophy.
A common embryologic origin has been postulated for developments of all of the variants.
Sexual function and libido in male and female exstrophy patients are:
normal in males, abnormal in females.
normal only in males.
normal in both males and females.
normal only in females.
abnormal in both males and females.
What is the most common complication after pregnancy in female exstrophy patients?
Premature labor
Rectal prolapse
Preeclampsia
Cervical and uterine prolapse
Oligohydramnios
Psychological studies of male and female children with bladder exstrophy find that:
all have clinical psychopathology.
they do not have clinical psychopathology.
most have significant depression due to the condition.
many children have gender dysphoria.
half of males and half of females have clinical psychopathology.
Single-stage reconstruction by using the complete primary exstrophy repair technique offers several advantages versus staged reconstruction EXCEPT:
the possibility to correct the penile, bladder, and bladder neck abnormalities of bladder exstrophy with one operation.
the ability to achieve urinary continence without bladder neck reconstruction.
correction of vesicoureteral reflux at the time of surgery.
lower complication rates than previous attempts at single-stage reconstruction.
initiation of bladder cycling early in life.
Single-stage reconstruction by using the complete primary exstrophy repair technique relies on which of the following to achieve continence?
Reestablishment of normal anatomic relationships
Bladder neck reconstruction at the time of primary surgery
Osteotomy at the time of single-stage reconstruction
Simultaneous epispadias repair
None of the above
The following postoperative factors have been shown to increase the success of reconstruction for bladder exstrophy EXCEPT:
immobilization with external fixators, Buck traction, a spica cast, or a mummy wrap.
antibiotic therapy.
prolonged nil per os (NPO) status to avoid abdominal distention.
urinary diversion through ureteral stenting and suprapubic urinary drainage.
adequate nutritional support.
Single-stage reconstruction by using the complete primary exstrophy repair technique can be safely performed because:
the neurovascular bundles of the corporeal bodies lie laterally rather than dorsally on the corporeal bodies.
the cavernosal bodies and urethral wedge are not actually separated from each other in this technique.
the blood supply to the corporeal bodies and that to the urethral wedge are independent of each other.
the blood supply is quickly reestablished once the components are "reassembled."
the distal vascular communications between the corpora and urethral wedge are preserved.
The proximal limit(s) of dissection by using the complete primary exstrophy repair technique is/are:
the intersymphyseal band.
the muscles of the pelvic floor.
the rectum.
the corpora spongiosa.
the endopelvic fascia.
Factors that mitigate against use of a single-stage reconstruction technique for cloacal exstrophy include the presence of:
a large omphalocele.
a wide pubic diastasis.
a concomitant myelomeningocele.
a small bladder plate.
all of the above.
Complications of the complete primary exstrophy repair technique include:
myogenic bladder failure.
testicular atrophy.
urethrocutaneous fistula.
hip dislocation.
epispadias.

Answers

c. 1 in 50,000.The incidence of bladder exstrophy has been estimated as between 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 50,000 live births.
a. 1 in 70. Shapiro determined that the risk of bladder exstrophy in the offspring of individuals with bladder exstrophy and epispadias is 1 in 70 live births, a 500-fold greater incidence than in the general population.
b. Overdevelopment of the cloacal membrane, preventing medial migration of the mesodermal tissue and proper lower abdominal wall development. The theory of embryonic maldevelopment in exstrophy held by Marshall and Muecke is that the basic defect is an abnormal overdevelopment of the cloacal membrane, preventing medial migration of the mesenchymal tissue and proper lower abdominal wall development.
e. All of the above.Sponseller and colleagues found that patients with classic bladder exstrophy have a mean external rotation of the posterior aspect of the pelvis of 12 degrees on each side, retroversion of the acetabulum, and a mean 18-degree external rotation of the anterior pelvis, along with 30% shortening of the pubic rami.
c. They are noted in 80% of boys and 10% of girls.Connelly and colleagues, in a review of 181 children with bladder exstrophy, reported inguinal hernias in 81.8% of boys and 10.5% of girls.
d. The anterior corporeal segments are 50% shorter than those of healthy control participants. With the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to examine adult men with bladder exstrophy and comparison of this result with that from age- and race-matched control participants, it was found that the anterior corporeal length in male patients with bladder exstrophy is almost 50% shorter than that of healthy control participants.
a. Volume weight and the cross-sectional area appeared normal compared with published results from control participants.The volume, weight, and maximum cross-sectional area of the prostate appeared normal compared with published results from control subjects.
c. Shorter than normal but of normal caliber.The vagina is shorter than normal, hardly greater than 6 cm in depth, but of normal caliber.
a. Density and binding affinity of the muscarinic receptors that were similar to norms.Muscarinic cholinergic receptor density and binding affinity were measured in control participants and in patients with classic bladder exstrophy. The density of the muscarinic cholinergic receptors in both the control and exstrophy groups was similar, as was the binding affinity of the muscarinic receptor. Therefore it was thought by the authors that the neurophysiologic composition of the exstrophied bladder is not grossly altered during its anomalous development.
b. Eighty percent of patients had compliant and stable bladders before bladder neck reconstruction.Diamond and colleagues (1999), looking at 30 patients with bladder exstrophy at various stages of reconstruction, found that 80% of patients had compliant and stable bladders before bladder neck reconstruction.
e. All of the above.In a review of 25 prenatal ultrasonographic examinations with the resulting birth of a newborn with classic bladder exstrophy, several observations were made: (1) absence of bladder filling; (2) a low-set umbilicus; (3) widening pubis ramus; (4) diminutive genitalia; and (5) a lower abdominal mass that increases in size while the pregnancy progresses and as the intra-abdominal viscera increase in size.
c. Indentation of the bladder under anesthesia or outward bulging when the child cries.In minor grades of exstrophy that approach the condition of complete epispadias with incontinence, the bladder may be small yet may demonstrate acceptable capacity, either by bulging when the baby cries or by indenting easily when touched by a sterile gloved finger in the operating room with the child under anesthesia.
d. Bladder neck reconstruction before the epispadias repair to provide early continence.The most significant changes in the management of bladder exstrophy have been (1) early bladder, posterior urethral, and abdominal wall closure, usually with osteotomy; (2) early epispadias repair; (3) reconstruction of a continent bladder neck and reimplantation of the ureters; and, most importantly, (4) definition of strict criteria for the selection of patients suitable for this approach. Bladder neck repair usually occurs when the child is 4 to 5 years, has an adequate bladder capacity, and, most important, is ready to participate in a postoperative voiding program.
c. Delaying closure by 4 to 6 months with reassessment to see if the bladder will grow.Ideally, waiting for the bladder template to grow for 4 to 6 months in the child with a small bladder is not as risky as submitting a small bladder template to closure in an inappropriate setting, resulting in dehiscence and allowing the fate of the bladder to be sealed at that point.
c. The need to turn a patient to perform an osteotomy.Combined osteotomy was developed for three reasons: (1) osteotomy is performed with the patient in the supine position, as is the urologic repair, thereby avoiding the need to turn the patient; (2) the anterior approach to this osteotomy allows placement of an external fixator device and intrafragmentary pins under direct vision; and (3) the cosmetic appearance of this osteotomy is superior to that of the posterior iliac approach.
c. High rates of failure of reconstruction associated with the use of osteotomy and external fixation.Successful closure was noted in 97% of those immobilized with an external fixator and modified Buck traction.
b. The Erlangen approach includes all of the features of reconstruction of the exstrophy in a single procedure.This method is truly a "complete repair" because it accomplishes all of the facets of exstrophy reconstruction in a single procedure. Surgical repair is, however, performed at 8 to 10 weeks of age when the infant is larger and has had the opportunity to be medically stabilized.
e. Cystoscopy. An important caveat is that if there are recurrent urinary tract infections or if the bladder is distended on an ultrasonographic study, cystoscopy should be performed and the posterior urethra should be carefully examined anteriorly for erosion of the intrapubic stitch, which may be the cause of the recurrent infections.
c. Intermittent antibiotics for urinary tract infections.Before removal of the suprapubic tube, 4 weeks after surgery, the bladder outlet is calibrated by a urethral catheter or a urethral sound to ensure free drainage. A complete ultrasound examination is obtained to ascertain the status of the renal pelves and ureters, and appropriate urinary antibiotics are administered because all patients will have reflux postclosure. Residual urine is estimated by clamping the suprapubic tube, and specimens for culture are obtained before the patient leaves the hospital and at subsequent intervals to detect infection and ensure that the bladder is empty.
a. 60%.In one study, if a patient underwent two closures, the chance of having an adequate bladder capacity for bladder neck reconstruction was 60%.
a. Correction of ventral chordee.Regardless of the surgical technique chosen for reconstruction of the penis in bladder exstrophy, four key concerns must be addressed to ensure a functional and cosmetically pleasing penis: (1) correction of dorsal chordee, (2) urethral reconstruction, (3) glandular reconstruction, and (4) penile skin closure.
d. Bladder capacity. The most important long-term factor gleaned from a review of all these series is the fact that bladder capacity at the time of bladder neck reconstruction is an important determinant of eventual success.
b. 1 year.The vast majority of patients achieve daytime continence in the first year after bladder neck reconstruction.
d. 6 months.Dehiscence, which may be precipitated by incomplete mobilization of the pelvic diaphragm, and inadequate pelvic immobilization postoperatively, wound infection, abdominal distention, or urinary tube malfunction, necessitates a 6-month recovery period before a second attempt at closure.
a. The onset of eventual continence and continence rates were unchanged in those who had initial successful closure. The importance of a successful initial closure is emphasized by Oesterling and Jeffs (1987) and by Husmann and colleagues (1989), who found that the onset of eventual continence was quicker and the continence rate higher in those who underwent a successful initial closure with or without osteotomy.
b. Dehiscence after complete primary repair may be associated with corporeal, urethral, and other major soft tissue loss.Dehiscence and prolapse have also been reported after the "complete repair" and may be associated with glandular, corporeal, urethral plate, and other major soft tissue loss.
c. Bladder neck transection, augmentation cystoplasty, and continent diversion. A majority of bladder neck failures require eventual augmentation or continent diversion.The artificial urinary sphincter has been used with some success in patients who have a good bladder capacity. However, in most of these failures the bladder capacity is small and augmentation will be required. At the time of reoperative surgery, either the bladder neck is transected proximal to the prostate with a Mitrofanoff substitution, or a continence procedure such as an artificial sphincter or collagen injection, or both, is performed. In our extensive experience with failed bladder neck reconstructions, most of the patients have had several surgeries and need to be dry. In such cases the most suitable alternative is bladder neck transection, augmentation, and a continent urinary stoma (Gearhart et al, 1995b; Hensle et al, 1995).
a. Pyelonephritis and hyperchloremic acidosis.However, this form of diversion should not be offered until one is certain that anal continence is normal and after the family has been made aware of the potential serious complications including pyelonephritis, hyperchloremic acidosis, rectal incontinence, ureteral obstruction, and delayed development of malignancy.
a. 1 in 400,000.Fortunately, cloacal exstrophy is exceedingly rare, occurring in 1 in 200,000 to 400,000 live births.
b. The embryologic basis for the neurospinal defect has been identified as failure of neural tube closure.The embryologic basis for the neurospinal defects associated with cloacal exstrophy has been postulated to be secondary to problems with the disruption of the tissue of the dorsal mesenchyme rather than failure of neural tube closure (McLaughlin et al, 1995). Alternatively, it has been suggested that the defects that lead to the formation of cloacal exstrophy may lead to the developing spinal cord and vertebrae being pulled apart (Cohen, 1991).
c. The most common müllerian anomaly noted was partial uterine duplication.The most commonly reported müllerian anomaly was uterine duplication, seen in 95% of patients (Diamond, 1990). The vast majority of these patients had partial uterine duplication, predominantly a bicornate uterus.
c. 95%.In Diamond's series, the incidence of omphalocele was 88%, with a majority of all series reporting 95% or greater.
d. Provide additional length of bowel for fluid absorption.With the recognition of the metabolic changes in patients with ileostomy, an attempt is always made to use the hindgut remnant to provide additional length of bowel for fluid absorption.
e. A functional and cosmetically acceptable phallus can now be constructed. Most authors recommend assigning gender that is consistent with karyotypic makeup of the individual if at all possible.This policy can be supported by a report indicating that the histology of the testis at birth is normal (Mathews et al, 1999a). Furthermore, with evolution of techniques for phallic reconstruction, a functional and cosmetically acceptable phallus can now be constructed (Husmann et al, 1989).
d. 1 in 117,000.Male epispadias is a rare anomaly, with a reported incidence of 1 in 117,000 males.
e. 30% to 40%.The ureterovesical junction is inherently deficient in complete epispadias, and reflux has been reported between 30% and 40% in a number of series.
c. Bladder capacity at the time of bladder neck reconstruction.In the epispadias group, much as in the exstrophy group, bladder capacity is the predominant indicator of eventual continence.
b. The bladder is completely exstrophied in the superior vesical fissure variant.In the superior vesical fissure variant of the exstrophy complex, the musculature and skeletal defects are exactly the same as those in classic exstrophy; however, the persistent cloacal membrane ruptures only at the uppermost portion, and a superior vesical fistula that actually resembles a vesicostomy results. Bladder extrusion is minimal and is present only over the normal umbilicus.
c. Normal in both males and females.Sexual function and libido in exstrophy patients are normal.
d. Cervical and uterine prolapse.The main complication after pregnancy was cervical and uterine prolapse, which occurred frequently.
b. They do not have clinical psychopathology.The conclusions of this long-term study were that children with exstrophy do not have clinical psychopathology.
c. Correction of vesicoureteral reflux at the time of surgery.In most applications of the primary exstrophy repair technique, correction of vesicoureteral reflux is not performed, although some have reported performing ureteral reimplantation. All of the other elements are considered advantages of the primary repair.
a. Reestablishment of normal anatomic relationships.The fundamental basis of the primary repair technique is to reposition the bladder neck and urethral complex into the normal pelvic position more posteriorly than at birth. This permits more normal function of the pelvic floor in maintenance of continence. The other factors do not contribute as significantly to continence.
c. Prolonged nil per os (NPO) status to avoid abdominal distention.It is not necessary to maintain an NPO status after primary repair because this will compromise nutrition. If an ileus develops, appropriate decompression and management are necessary because abdominal distention strains the repair. All other factors contribute to a successful outcome.
c. The blood supply to the corporeal bodies and that to the urethral wedge are independent of each other.Because the three elements of the penis, the two corpora and the urethral wedge, are fully separated in the penile disassembly, their vasculature must be proximal, which it is; this is the reason this method is successful. Nevertheless, preservation of these proximal vascular supplies is essential.
b. The muscles of the pelvic floor.The limit of dissection along the penile structures is the pelvic floor, which is then split to permit repositioning of the bladder neck complex posteriorly.
e. All of the above.All of these factors would indicate that an attempt to perform a primary repair would be at high risk for failure, predominantly by dehiscence. Several of these factors may be present at one time.
c. Urethrocutaneous fistula.The most common complication after primary repair is development of a urethrocutaneous fistula on the ventrum of the penis. Other complications can include corporeal devascularization, hydronephrosis, and hypospadias.

Chapter review

The male-to-female ratio for exstrophy is 2.3:1.
The risk of bladder exstrophy in family members is increased.
Rectal prolapse frequently occurs in untreated exstrophy patients who have widely separated symphyses. It disappears after exstrophy closure.
If rectal prolapse occurs after closure, bladder outlet obstruction should be suspected.
The autonomic nerves are displaced laterally in patients with exstrophy.
Reflux occurs in 100% of patients with exstrophy; inguinal hernias are common.
An ectopic isolated bowel segment may be present in the lower abdominal wall.
Osteotomy is rarely performed in newborns unless the diastasis is greater than 4 cm.
The most reliable predictors of urinary continence are the size of the bladder template at birth and successful primary closure.
Approximately 75% of patients with exstrophy are continent after repair. Continence is defined as 3 hours of dryness.
Cloacal exstrophy consists of exstrophy of the bladder; complete phallic separation; wide diastasis of the pubis; exstrophy of the terminal ileum, which lies between the two halves of the bladder; rudimentary hindgut; imperforate anus; omphalocele; and not infrequently associated spinal defects. Spinal defects are not common in patients who only have exstrophy.
In adolescents and adults with exstrophy, concerns in the male are length, appearance, and deviation of the penis. In the female, concerns are the appearance of the external genitalia, adequacy of the vaginal opening, and uterine prolapse.
Women with exstrophy have delivered children; however, a frequent complication after pregnancy is cervical and uterine prolapse.
Closure of exstrophy: (1) reshapes the pelvis, (2) redistributes the levator group, and (3) smooths the contour of the pelvic floor.
At birth the exstrophy patient should have the umbilical cord secured with silk rather than an umbilical clamp to prevent trauma to the exposed bladder, and the bladder should be covered with a nonadherent film to minimize trauma and prevent desiccation of the bladder mucosa.
Bladder spasms must be controlled in the postoperative period following closure of the exstrophy.
Patients with epispadias may have associated vesicoureteral reflux and inguinal hernias, although the incidence is not as high as it is in bladder exstrophy.
The factor most likely to cause long-term disability in the reconstructed cloacal exstrophy patient is the associated neurologic deficit.
The basic defect in exstrophy is an abnormal overdevelopment of the cloacal membrane, preventing medial migration of the mesenchymal tissue and proper lower abdominal wall development.
Anterior corporeal length in male patients with bladder exstrophy is almost 50% shorter than that of healthy control participants.
Bladder neck repair usually occurs when the child is 4 to 5 years, has an adequate bladder capacity, and, most important, is ready to participate in a postoperative voiding program.
In a closed exstrophy patient, recurrent urinary tract infections should prompt evaluation for erosion of the anterior pubic stitch into the bladder or urethra.
A majority of bladder neck failures require eventual augmentation or continent diversion.
At birth, most recommend assigning gender that is consistent with karyotypic makeup of the individual if at all possible.

^* Sources referenced can be found in Campbell-Walsh Urology, 11th Edition, on the Expert Consult website.

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